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BLUFF: Benchmarking the Detection of False and Synthetic Content across 58 Low-Resource Languages

Jason Lucas, Matt Murtagh-White, Adaku Uchendu, Ali Al-Lawati, Michiharu Yamashita, Dominik Macko, Ivan Srba, Robert Moro, Dongwon Lee · Feb 28, 2026 · Citations: 0

Automatic Metrics Coding Multi Agent Multilingual
Open arXiv Find Implementation RSS feed Shortlist (0)

How to use this page

Low trust

Use this as background context only. Do not make protocol decisions from this page alone.

Best use

Background context only

What to verify

Validate the evaluation procedure and quality controls in the full paper before operational use.

Evidence quality

Low

Derived from extracted protocol signals and abstract evidence.

Abstract

Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools. We introduce BLUFF, a comprehensive benchmark for detecting false and synthetic content, spanning 79 languages with over 202K samples, combining human-written fact-checked content (122K+ samples across 57 languages) and LLM-generated content (79K+ samples across 71 languages). BLUFF uniquely covers both high-resource "big-head" (20) and low-resource "long-tail" (59) languages, addressing critical gaps in multilingual research on detecting false and synthetic content. Our dataset features four content types (human-written, LLM-generated, LLM-translated, and hybrid human-LLM text), bidirectional translation (English$\leftrightarrow$X), 39 textual modification techniques (36 manipulation tactics for fake news, 3 AI-editing strategies for real news), and varying edit intensities generated using 19 diverse LLMs. We present AXL-CoI (Adversarial Cross-Lingual Agentic Chainof-Interactions), a novel multi-agentic framework for controlled fake/real news generation, paired with mPURIFY, a quality filtering pipeline ensuring dataset integrity. Experiments reveal state-of-theart detectors suffer up to 25.3% F1 degradation on low-resource versus high-resource languages. BLUFF provides the research community with a multilingual benchmark, extensive linguistic-oriented benchmark evaluation, comprehensive documentation, and opensource tools to advance equitable falsehood detection. Dataset and code are available at: https://jsl5710.github.io/BLUFF/

Low-signal caution for protocol decisions

Use this page for context, then validate protocol choices against stronger HFEPX references before implementation decisions.

  • The available metadata is too thin to trust this as a primary source.
Human Eval Hub LLM-as-Judge Hub Pairwise Preference Hub

Should You Rely On This Paper?

This paper is adjacent to HFEPX scope and is best used for background context, not as a primary protocol reference.

Best use

Background context only

Use if you need

A secondary eval reference to pair with stronger protocol papers.

Main weakness

The available metadata is too thin to trust this as a primary source.

Trust level

Low

Usefulness score

25/100 • Low

Treat as adjacent context, not a core eval-method reference.

Human Feedback Signal

Not explicit in abstract metadata

Evaluation Signal

Detected

Usefulness for eval research

Adjacent candidate

Extraction confidence 45%

If you are doing eval pipeline work, start here:

Human Eval Hub LLM-as-Judge Hub Pairwise Preference Hub Tool-Use Eval Hub

What We Could Verify

These are the protocol signals we could actually recover from the available paper metadata. Use them to decide whether this paper is worth deeper reading.

Human Feedback Types

missing

None explicit

No explicit feedback protocol extracted.

"Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools."

Evaluation Modes

partial

Automatic Metrics

Includes extracted eval setup.

"Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools."

Quality Controls

missing

Not reported

No explicit QC controls found.

"Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools."

Benchmarks / Datasets

missing

Not extracted

No benchmark anchors detected.

"Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools."

Reported Metrics

partial

F1

Useful for evaluation criteria comparison.

"Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools."

Human Feedback Details

  • Uses human feedback: No
  • Feedback types: None
  • Rater population: Not reported
  • Expertise required: Coding, Multilingual

Evaluation Details

  • Evaluation modes: Automatic Metrics
  • Agentic eval: Multi Agent
  • Quality controls: Not reported
  • Evidence quality: Low
  • Use this page as: Background context only

Protocol And Measurement Signals

Benchmarks / Datasets

No benchmark or dataset names were extracted from the available abstract.

Reported Metrics

f1

Research Brief

Metadata summary

Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools.

Based on abstract + metadata only. Check the source paper before making high-confidence protocol decisions.

Key Takeaways

  • Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools.
  • We introduce BLUFF, a comprehensive benchmark for detecting false and synthetic content, spanning 79 languages with over 202K samples, combining human-written fact-checked content (122K+ samples across 57 languages) and LLM-generated content (79K+ samples across 71 languages).
  • BLUFF uniquely covers both high-resource "big-head" (20) and low-resource "long-tail" (59) languages, addressing critical gaps in multilingual research on detecting false and synthetic content.

Researcher Actions

  • Compare this paper against nearby papers in the same arXiv category before using it for protocol decisions.
  • Validate inferred eval signals (Automatic metrics) against the full paper.
  • Use related-paper links to find stronger protocol-specific references.

Caveats

  • Generated from abstract + metadata only; no PDF parsing.
  • Signals below are heuristic and may miss details reported outside the abstract.

Recommended Queries

F1

Research Summary

Contribution Summary

  • Multilingual falsehoods threaten information integrity worldwide, yet detection benchmarks remain confined to English or a few high-resource languages, leaving low-resource linguistic communities without robust defense tools.
  • We introduce BLUFF, a comprehensive benchmark for detecting false and synthetic content, spanning 79 languages with over 202K samples, combining human-written fact-checked content (122K+ samples across 57 languages) and LLM-generated…
  • We present AXL-CoI (Adversarial Cross-Lingual Agentic Chainof-Interactions), a novel multi-agentic framework for controlled fake/real news generation, paired with mPURIFY, a quality filtering pipeline ensuring dataset integrity.

Why It Matters For Eval

  • We introduce BLUFF, a comprehensive benchmark for detecting false and synthetic content, spanning 79 languages with over 202K samples, combining human-written fact-checked content (122K+ samples across 57 languages) and LLM-generated…
  • We present AXL-CoI (Adversarial Cross-Lingual Agentic Chainof-Interactions), a novel multi-agentic framework for controlled fake/real news generation, paired with mPURIFY, a quality filtering pipeline ensuring dataset integrity.

Researcher Checklist

  • Gap: Human feedback protocol is explicit

    No explicit human feedback protocol detected.

  • Pass: Evaluation mode is explicit

    Detected: Automatic Metrics

  • Gap: Quality control reporting appears

    No calibration/adjudication/IAA control explicitly detected.

  • Gap: Benchmark or dataset anchors are present

    No benchmark/dataset anchor extracted from abstract.

  • Pass: Metric reporting is present

    Detected: f1

Related Papers

Papers are ranked by protocol overlap, extraction signal alignment, and semantic proximity.

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